Abstract
Background: Fast fashion, driven by low cost and rapid production cycles, has intensified global clothing consumption and waste. Although ethical fashion has emerged as a sustainable alternative, fast fashion remains dominant despite consumers’ stated environmental concerns (EC) and positive attitudes.
Objectives: This study examines the factors influencing South African millennials’ intention to purchase ethical fashion, using the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) extended with perceived consumer effectiveness (PCE), environmental knowledge (EK), EC and situational context.
Method: A quantitative survey was conducted with 302 South African millennials. Data were analysed using Stata and partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) to test the extended TPB framework.
Results: Findings reveal a growing inclination to consume ethical fashion among millennials. Within the TPB, attitude was the strongest predictor of intention, followed by subjective norms (SN) and perceived behavioural control (PBC). Perceived consumer effectiveness also significantly predicted intention, while EK positively influenced attitudes. In contrast, situational factors showed no significant impact on intention.
Conclusion: Ethical fashion intentions in South Africa are driven largely by attitudes, social influence and consumers’ belief in their effectiveness. The lack of influence from situational barriers suggests ethical consumption may be increasingly resilient to contextual constraints.
Contribution: The study extends TPB to the context of sustainable fashion in an emerging economy, providing both theoretical and practical insights. Businesses can leverage these findings by highlighting consumer effectiveness, enhancing environmental education and aligning marketing strategies with value-driven motivations to promote ethical fashion adoption.
Keywords: sustainable fashion; purchase intention; theory of planned behaviour; social norms; perceived consumer effectiveness.
Introduction
The fashion industry in South Africa is known as the Clothing, Textiles, Footwear and Leather (CTFL) sector and contributes 1% – 3% of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP) (Business Report 2023). The sector is known for its intensive manufacturing, making up about 14% of the country’s employment opportunities. South Africa has the largest fashion industry in sub-Saharan Africa with a revenue of 11 billion US dollars in 2024 (Discovered by DHL 2024) and is the largest exporter of clothing in Africa (African Development Bank 2019). Apparel leads the industry, followed by footwear and accessories. The market is still mainly rooted in the traditional brick-and-mortar stores, with a growing percentage (25%) of sales being online (Statista 2025). According to Gatawa and Snowball (2024), the industry is an important industry for Africa and sub-Saharan Africa as it contributes to job creation and employment by addressing the needs of the growing middle-class consumer. The South African industry faces stern competition from fast fashion imports as consumers prioritise cheap clothing because of the financial implications and the novelty thereof (Business Report 2023; Gatawa & Snowball 2024; Moodly, Christie & Strydom 2023).
The widespread production and marketing of clothing, fuelled by a culture of constant consumption, has drawn criticism for its negative impact on the environment and society (Gatawa & Snowball 2024; Williams 2022). Fast fashion, known for its affordability, often exploits workers, particularly young women and children in developing countries, who endure unsafe working conditions and low wages (Shedlock & Feldstein 2023). This industry fosters excessive consumption, encouraging consumers to constantly seek out and purchase new items beyond their actual needs (Lim 2017). The rise of fast fashion has led to an increase in fashion seasons, with as many as 50–100 micro-seasons per year (Drew & Yehounme 2017), transforming shopping into a form of clothing entertainment (Jani & Jatmika 2023). Consequently, there’s a disposal culture where clothing is worn briefly and discarded, contributing to overconsumption and a lack of appreciation for the resources and labour involved in production (Niinimäki et al. 2020), which has dire environmental consequences (Gatawa & Snowball 2024).
The production and consumption of fast fashion in South Africa, in particular, lies in vast quantities of water being consumed in an already water-scarce country with water pollution further exacerbating the situation. High carbon emissions from production and transport also compound the degradation during the manufacturing stage, while the actual consumption and discarding phases by the consumer add to the landfill burden as synthetic fibres in particular do not degrade. Microfibres and microplastic pollution also severely impact ecosystems and strain already scarce water sources (Makgeru 2023). Despite growing concerns regarding the negative effects of fast fashion on society and the environment, with consumers demanding accountability in the fashion supply chain, the industry remains prosperous. This prosperity capitalises on the changing consumer behaviour in terms of the speed with which they receive new information and with which the trends spread. Consumption is encouraged through continually promoting early adoption as well as fast discarding of the clothing (Bailey, Basu & Sharma 2022). However, with shifting consumer attitudes towards reducing the ecological impact of consumption and the promotion of fair labour, sustainable fashion has emerged as a potential solution to the current problem (Mukendi et al. 2020). According to Palm (2023), defining sustainable fashion is highly problematic because of the oversimplification and/or reflection of innovation, but an approach should rather be followed that allows the dynamic, context-dependent process open to negotiation and interpretation. For the current project, sustainable fashion will be defined as designing, producing and consuming clothing that minimises the environmental impact thereof, promotes social responsibility and supports long-term ecological and economic well-being.
Sustainable fashion in the context of South Africa holds significant implications for the triple bottom line, that is, environmental, social and economic domains. According to Christie and Venter de Villiers (2023), consuming sustainably will not only benefit the country as a whole in terms of a shift towards pro-environmental material consumption, localised production, circular economy practices etc., in a water-scarce and resource-scarce country, but it will also promote individual quality of life. Through embracing sustainable fashion, the country can promote job creation, skills development and empowerment, specifically for small businesses (Discovered by DHL 2024). Fashion designers and small-scale producers are starting to differentiate their products from fast fashion in terms of quality and sustainability, but this requires investment in training, infrastructure and more importantly, consumer education (Mohair SA 2025). According to Moodly et al. (2023), millennial consumers in South Africa, which is the largest consumer segment for fashion apparel, favour consumption of fast fashion; however, changing consumer values may shift consumption patterns to a more simplified and sustainable lifestyle. The South African market is indeed slowly embracing more sustainable alternatives with the market share growing steadily (Mohair SA 2025).
Research is, however, still lacking in South Africa regarding consumers’ intention to consume sustainable fashion, as consumer focus is on the reduction of poverty and income inequality. The current study focused on millennial consumers (born between 1980 and 1996, [Galdames & Guihen 2022]) in South Africa. Described as trendsetters within the fashion industry, wielding considerable influence over other generations (Hinzmann & Stark-Nässlin 2020), millennials are noted for their technological savvy, independence, and substantial purchasing power (Eastman & Liu 2012; Galdames & Guihen 2022). Despite their potential to lead in adopting sustainable fashion practices and their significant contribution to retail sales, millennials in South Africa have not fully embraced sustainable consumption as expected (Bernardes et al. 2018; Moodly et al. 2023). Therefore, there is a need to explore the factors influencing the attitudes and intentions of South African millennials towards sustainable fashion, aiming to address this gap and promote greater acceptance of sustainable fashion consumption. Understanding millennial consumer behaviour will aid businesses in devising effective marketing strategies for sustainable fashion consumption in South Africa, to this particular cohort, and perhaps to others as well.
This study aimed to explore whether attitudes, subjective norms (SN) and perceived behavioural control (PBC) are effective predictors of the intention to purchase sustainable fashion. Additionally, it sought to assess whether consumers’ confidence in addressing the environmental and social impacts of fast fashion can reliably predict their intent to adopt sustainable fashion. By building on the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), the study tested these constructs in a developing economy, focusing on a consumer group known for its significant purchasing power and sensitivity to pro-environmental causes, and thus, related behaviours.
Theory of planned behaviour
The study employs the TPB as its theoretical foundation to investigate sustainable consumer behaviour (Amed et al. 2019; Rizkalla et al. 2022). Researchers widely recognise TPB as one of the most effective models for understanding human intentions and behaviours, particularly in environmental contexts (Jang et al. 2014). The theory of planned behaviour posits that behavioural intentions, which ultimately determine actions, are influenced by three primary components: attitudes, SN and PBC (Ajzen 1991). Within this framework, intention represents an individual’s conscious decision and commitment to perform a specific action or reach a purchase-related goal, serving as a key indicator of subsequent behaviour (Lindén 2017). Research indicates that stronger intentions typically correlate with a higher probability of the behaviour being executed (Ajzen 1991; Papaoikonomou, Ryan & Ginieis 2011). Therefore, the following hypothesis is formulated:
H1: Attitude will have a positive impact on South African millennial consumers’ intention towards sustainable apparel.
Although the TPB suggests that attitudes, SN and PBC have equal influence on sustainable purchase intentions (Varah et al. 2020), empirical evidence reveals that these factors’ relative importance fluctuates across different behavioural contexts (Rodrigue et al. 2023). For instance, research by Han and Stoel (2017) revealed that attitudes had the strongest impact on purchase intention, with SN and PBC showing decreasing levels of influence. Different findings emerged from studies by Kang, Lui and Kim (2013) and Brandao and Costa (2021), which demonstrated that while attitudes and SN positively shaped intentions to purchase environmentally sustainable products, PBC showed no significant impact. Adding to this complexity, Bong Ko and Jin (2017) demonstrated that PBC was a crucial factor in determining consumers’ sustainable apparel purchase intentions. Zhang et al. (2019) further nuanced these findings, showing that attitudes and PBC influenced intentions for hedonic sustainable products, while SN were more relevant for utilitarian sustainable product purchases. Therefore, the following hypotheses were formulated:
H2: Subjective norms will have a positive impact on South African millennial consumers’ intention to purchase sustainable fashion.
H3: Perceived behavioural control will have a positive impact on South African millennial consumers’ intention to purchase sustainable fashion.
Additionally, De Freitas, Van Eeden and Christie (2020) found that for South African consumers, PBC was the primary factor influencing their intention to stay at a green hotel, although all TPB-related factors had a positive impact on intention.
As a result of these differences and subsequent criticism on the narrow scope of the theory’s predictive ability, researchers often expand the theory by incorporating supplementary variables to capture the variation in consumer intention or behaviour (De Freitas et al. 2020; Rise, Sheeran & Hukkelberg 2010). Various determinants of consumer behaviour to bridge the gap between attitude, intention and behaviour have been identified. Potential determinants in the context of sustainable fashion also include perceived consumer effectiveness (PCE) (consumers’ individual belief that their decisions and actions can have a positive impact on the environment) (Dehosse 2020), trust and scepticism (Lui et al. 2021), leading to the following hypothesis:
H4: Perceived consumer effectiveness will have a positive impact on millennial consumers’ intention to purchase sustainable fashion.
Sahiti and Dickmann (2020), as well as Paul, Mod and Patel (2016), incorporated individual knowledge and concern regarding environmental and ethical issues in the TPB model, affecting consumer susceptibility to sustainable fashion, resulting in the following amalgamation of the theory in the form of the following hypotheses:
H5a: Environmental concern will have a positive impact on South African millennial consumers’ attitude and the purchase intention of sustainable fashion.
H5b: Environmental concern will have a positive impact on South African millennial consumers’ subjective norms and the purchase intention of sustainable fashion.
H5c: Environmental concern will have a positive impact on South African millennial consumers’ perceived behavioural control and intention to purchase sustainable fashion.
H5d: Environmental concern will have a positive impact on South African millennial consumers’ perceived consumer effectiveness and the purchase intention of sustainable fashion.
H6: Environmental knowledge will have a positive impact on South African millennial consumers’ attitude and purchasing intention of sustainable fashion.
Conversely, researchers have emphasised the importance of investigating situational factors that consumers face daily (such as availability of sustainable products), which may influence their actual purchase behaviour (Lambert 2019; Witek 2019), leading to the last hypothesis:
H7: Situational context and/or factors will have a positive impact on South African millennial consumers’ intention to purchase sustainable fashion.
Despite substantial research on sustainable consumption in fashion, our understanding of what drives consumers to purchase sustainable fashion remains incomplete, suggesting a need for deeper investigation (Rausch & Kopplin 2021). To address this gap, this study expands upon the traditional TPB framework by integrating additional factors: perceived environmental knowledge (EK), environmental concern (EC), PCE and situational context. This enhanced model aims to provide a more comprehensive understanding of what influences millennial consumers in South Africa to purchase sustainable fashion. The variables mentioned have previously demonstrated a positive influence on attitudes and intentions to purchase sustainably produced fashion items (Rizkalla et al. 2022), and for this study, these have been illustrated in Figure 1 as it extends the TPB framework along with its associated hypotheses for the current study. As a result, the research aimed at testing this proposed conceptual model to explore the intended purchase behaviour of millennial consumers in South Africa regarding sustainable fashion.
Methodology
Research design and sampling
A cross-sectional quantitative approach was utilised, incorporating non-probability purposive and snowball sampling, as it is well-suited for testing hypotheses and analysing the relationships between independent and dependent variables (Ajzen 1991). The quantitative research methodology typically seeks to generate explanations and predictions that can be applied to broader populations and contexts, with the aim to establish and/or validate connections between variables and hypothesis testing (Lambert 2019). As the current project aimed to explore the intended purchase behaviour towards sustainable fashion through testing of hypotheses, a quantitative approach, rather than a qualitative and/or mixed method approach, was followed. The target population for the current project was millennial consumers, specifically consumers between the ages of 23 and 44 years, because of their purchasing power and concern for the environment. This demographic group represents a substantial segment, with an estimated population size of over 15 million individuals. Based on this population size, the estimated sample size was calculated to be 385 respondents, with a 5% level of precision and a 95% confidence level. A non-probability sampling approach was employed, combining purposive and snowball techniques to reach participants who met the inclusion criteria. However, because of time constraints and the limitations of nonprobability sampling methods, only 302 usable questionnaires were collected, yielding a precision level of approximately 5.64%, which is acceptable for social science research.
Research instrument
A self-administered questionnaire distributed through Survey Monkey was utilised for collecting data from millennials residing in South Africa. The questionnaire consisted of 30 items, excluding demographic questions. This table is presented in the Appendix 1, Table 1A-1. The socio-demographic information of the respondents was captured in the first section, while the following sections consisted of items designed to test the research hypotheses (as presented in Figure 1). A 5-point Likert scale (ranging from 1 [strongly disagree] to 5 [strongly agree]) was used for all remaining responses. The questionnaire items for the variables were adopted from various authors with minor modifications from existing scales. For instance, attitude, SN and PBC items were adapted from Kim and Karpova (2010). Additional variables, namely, PCE, were adopted from Jaiswal and Kant (2018), EC from Kim and Choi (2005) and Sidique et al. (2010). Finally, EK was adopted from Kumar et al. (2022) with situational context from Carrington, Neville and Whitewell (2010). The questionnaire was distributed online, as this method is typically cost-effective and allows for rapid data collection and a lack of researcher bias (Bryman & Bell 2011).
| TABLE 1: Measurement model assessment results – Reliability. |
Data analysis
The data were analysed using the partial least squares structural equation model (PLS-SEM), a method that combines causal-predictive approaches with structural equation modelling (SEM). This approach allowed for the assessment of the reliability and validity of the model. The analysis of the PLS model comprised two main steps: firstly, the evaluation of the measurement model, and secondly, the testing of the proposed research hypotheses within the structural model. The PLS-SEM prioritises prediction and is tailored to offer causal explanations, making it well-suited for this study’s modelling requirements (Sarstedt, Ringle & Hair 2017). Bootstrapping was utilised for parameter estimation and associated standard errors.
The measurement model was evaluated by assessing reliability and construct validity. Internal consistency among grouped variables was measured using Cronbach’s alpha (α) and composite reliability, with values above 0.70 considered acceptable for both metrics (Hair et al. 2014; Sanchez 2013). Construct validity was examined through convergent and discriminant validity. Convergent validity, which assesses the extent to which items measuring the same construct are in agreement (Fauzi 2022), was determined using the Average Variance Extracted (AVE). The AVE represents the proportion of variance in a measured variable explained by the construct, relative to measurement error (Ramayah et al. 2017), and values exceeding 0.5 were deemed acceptable (Hair et al. 2014). Discriminant validity was evaluated using the Fornell-Larcker Criterion, which establishes validity when a construct’s AVE is greater than the squared intercorrelations with other constructs (Fornell & Larcker 1981).
The structural model was evaluated by examining the size and significance of the paths, the coefficient of determination (R2), and predictive relevance (Hair et al. 2014). The R2 indicates the proportion of variance in the endogenous latent variable explained by the independent latent variables. According to Sanchez, Trinchera and Russolillo (2014), R2 values above 0.60 are considered high, between 0.30 and 0.60 are moderate, and below 0.30 are low. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 28 was used to analyse the demographic profile and characteristics of the respondents. Partial least squares structural equation modelling was conducted using Stata V16 software (StataCorp 2019).
Ethical considerations
Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the University of South Africa’s CAES Health Research Ethics Committee (No. 2022/CAES_HREC/152), with written informed consent obtained prior to data collection. Anonymity and confidentiality were maintained throughout the study.
Results
Descriptive statistics
The majority of the 302 respondents (55.1%) were aged between 20 and 28 years, identified as female (67%), black Africans (77%), well-educated (University degree or diploma) (74.6%), employed (27.2%), with reasonable monthly incomes (middle class consumers). Most of the younger respondents (63.3%) were unmarried.
Questions were asked regarding respondents’ awareness of sustainable fashion, while 31.8% are familiar with it, 22.2% are not, and 46% have limited knowledge. Regarding purchasing behaviour, 20.3% of respondents buy sustainable fashion, while 51.2% do not, and 28.6% make such occasional purchases. Social media platforms like Facebook, Instagram, and X are the primary sources of information for sustainable fashion, cited by 45% of respondents, while magazines and articles are the least utilised sources, mentioned by only 2%.
Measurement model assessment
Reliability
Table 1 presents the measurement model assessment results with a focus on reliability. All items (PCE 2, SN 1, EC3, SC 4) with loadings below the cut-off point of 0.5 recommended by Hair et al. (2014) were deleted from the model. The remaining items for EC, that is, EC1, EC2 and EC5, were reverse-coded as these items were negatively phrased in the questionnaire. This process resulted in alpha values ranging between 0.550 and 0.897, as shown in Table 1. The composite reliability values for all the constructs were above 0.7, ranging between 0.758 and 0.925. The measurement model was considered reliable based on the composite reliability values and the high factor loadings. According to Purwanto (2021), composite reliability is a better measurement of internal consistency than Cronbach’s alpha as it does not assume the same weight for each indicator.
Validity
Convergent and discriminant validity
Table 2 illustrates AVE values between 0.512 and 0.721, which in each case is higher than the recommended value of 0.5, thus affirming that the items adequately reflect the constructs. We also see from Table 2 that the AVE is bigger than the off-diagonal elements (squared intercorrelations) in their respective row and column for all constructs. This indicates that discriminant validity has been achieved (Fornell & Larcker 1981).
The results of the measurement instrument used in this study were thus valid and reliable for assessing the intended purchase behaviour of sustainable fashion among millennials in South Africa.
The structural model
Having assessed and established adequate convergent and discriminant validity, as well as reliability of the measurement model, the structural model was subsequently assessed. The next step is to assess the structural model relationships. The structural model relationships between the variables were measured using PLS-SEM. Bootstrapping with 5000 iterations was utilised for parameter estimation and associated standard errors. Figure 2 illustrates the relationships between exogenous and endogenous variables.
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FIGURE 2: Partial least square path analysis with R2 value. |
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The path coefficients for attitude (β = 0.221, p < 0.001) and subjective norm (β = 0.197, p < 0.001) demonstrate a significant positive influence on consumers’ intention to purchase sustainable fashion. Similarly, PCE (β = 0.309, p < 0.000) and PBC (β = 0.209, p < 0.000) also exhibit significant positive effects on consumers’ intention towards sustainable fashion; therefore, H1, H2, H3 and H4 were accepted.
Environmental knowledge had a positive and significant influence on the attitude towards sustainable fashion (β = 0.421, p = 0.001), therefore, H6 was accepted as well. Environmental concern and attitude (β = 0.039 and p-value 0.517) have a higher than usual significance level of 0.05, meaning EC does not influence ATT towards sustainable fashion. Similarly, the coefficient path of EC and SN (β = −0.168, p = 0.012), as well as EC and PBC (−0.132, p = 0.079), indicates a negative relationship, thus H5a, H5b and H5c were not supported. With EC and PCE, the coefficient of EC is (β = 0.160 and p-value = 0.020), which is less than 0.05, meaning a significant relationship exists between EC and PCE. Lastly, situational context recorded a p-value greater than 0.05 (β = 0.071, p = 0.194), thus rejecting H5d and H7 as well. Table 3 presents the proposed hypotheses tested using SEM analysis.
| TABLE 3: Confirmation of hypothesis through structural equation modelling analysis. |
The R2 values of the endogenous latent variables are shown in Figure 2. In this model, the R2 values for the dependent variable, intention (INT), predicted by independent variables ATT, SN, PBC, PCE, and situation context (SC), were examined. The results indicate that ATT, SN, PBC, PCE and SC collectively account for approximately 44.3% of the variation in intention. This suggests that the independent variables moderately explain intention towards sustainable fashion.
R2 = 0.182 indicates that 18.2% of the variance in ATT is explained by EC and EK. In terms of SN, EC explains only 2.4% of the variation in SN, while EC explains only 1.4% of variance in PBC. The PCE results indicate that 2.2% of the variance in PCE is explained by EC.
High R2 for INT suggests a good fit, with nearly half of the variance explained by its predictors, while moderate R2 for ATT indicates a reasonable amount of variance explained. Low R2 for PCE, SN and PBC indicates that their predictors, mainly (EC), explain only a portion of the variance, suggesting other factors may be influencing these variables.
The study’s findings accepted H1, H2, H3, H4 and H6, while rejecting H5a, H5b, H5c, H5d and H7, illustrated by Table 3.
These results indicate that the original TPB models (ATT, SN and PBC) are better predictors of purchase intention towards sustainable apparel than the additional variables of EC, EK and SC that were proposed by the current study. The new model is, therefore, presented in Figure 3.
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FIGURE 3: Structural model of the predictive ability for South African millennial consumers’ purchase intention of sustainable fashion. |
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Discussion and conclusion
Initially, the study evaluated the predictive capacity of the TPB variables ATT, SN and PBC in forecasting the intended behaviour of South African millennial consumers towards sustainable fashion. Supplementary antecedents (PCE, EC, EK and SC) were incorporated to enhance the predictive ability of purchase intention for sustainable apparel beyond the original TPB model. Findings indicated that attitude significantly influences consumer intentions to purchase sustainable fashion among millennials in South Africa (Figure 4). This aligns with the TPB, which asserts that attitude is a key predictor of behavioural intention (Ajzen 1991). Studies by Paul et al. (2016) and Hsu et al. (2017) supported the notion that attitude is the primary factor and holds the strongest influence on purchase intention. This finding is consistent with research on eco-fashion purchase intention, which suggests that a positive attitude significantly predicts the intention to purchase sustainable fashion (Brandao & Costa 2021; Farzin et al. 2023; Kang et al. 2013).
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FIGURE 4: Attitude and behavioural intention. |
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Subsequently, SN were found to have a positive and highly significant impact on intention (Figure 5). While earlier studies often lacked evidence supporting the role of SN in purchase intentions (Kumar et al. 2022; Park & Lin 2018), recent research has emphasised their importance in the context of environmentally friendly and sustainable fashion purchases. For instance, studies by Lui et al. (2021) and Rizkalla et al. (2022) reveal that SN significantly influence consumers’ intentions to buy sustainable apparel. This suggests that social pressure plays a crucial role in shaping sustainable purchasing intentions, particularly among younger consumers, who are influenced by their social networks and tend to adapt their behaviour accordingly (Cherradi & Tetik 2020; Sreen, Purbey & Sadarangani 2018).
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FIGURE 5: Subjective norm and behavioural intention. |
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Thirdly, the findings reveal a positive and highly significant relationship between PBC and intention (Figure 6). This result aligns with the TPB, which identifies PBC as a key determinant of behavioural intention (Ajzen 1991). It is also consistent with previous research by Rizkalla et al. (2022), Han and Stoel (2017), and Yadav and Pathak (2017). However, Lui et al. (2021) reported no significant effect of PBC on intention towards sustainable fashion, underscoring variability in outcomes across different contexts.
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FIGURE 6: Perceived behavioural control and behavioural intention. |
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Interestingly, the fourth antecedent, PCE, also emerged as a significant predictor of behavioural intention (Figure 7). This finding highlights the importance of PCE as a predictor of the TPB in the realm of sustainable fashion, which aligns with previous research by Jaiswal and Kant (2018) and Kamalanon, Chen and Le (2022), who also observed a direct as well as positive impact of these constructs.
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FIGURE 7: Perceived consumer effectiveness and behavioural intention. |
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Moreover, the degree to which EC influences ATT, SN, PBC and PCE generated unique results where EC was not significant. This is contrary to the study of Rausch and Kopplin (2021), which concluded that EC has a higher influence on ATT. Similarly, the effect of EC on PBC is not significant. The effect of EC on SN was found to be negative, which means that when EC increases, SN decreases. Hypotheses 5a, 5b and 5c were thus rejected. These findings align with those of Nguyen et al. (2019) which did not find a relationship between EC and the original TPB variables. This could suggest that if someone has concerns over sustainable apparel and associated issues, it may not translate into sustainable apparel consumer intention unless the person has a positive attitude, approval of significant others, and a positive perception of behavioural control first (Rizkalla et al. 2022). With regard to PCE, the relationship between EC and PCE is positive and significant. As previously established, PCE significantly influences the purchase intention of sustainable fashion among millennial consumers in South Africa (Figure 8).
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FIGURE 8: Environmental concern, perceived consumer effectiveness and behavioural intention. |
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In relation to EK, a notable positive correlation between EK and ATT was found (Figure 9), thus aligning with Martinho’s (2021) findings. Martinho highlighted EK’s positive impact on attitude towards environmentally friendly apparel consumption and suggested its potential influence on purchase intention. Although EK does not directly affect the purchase intention of sustainable fashion, the effect is indirect through attitude, meaning that a lack of EC could potentially hinder individuals from purchasing sustainably-produced fashion (Rokicka 2002). Therefore, businesses promoting sustainable fashion should prioritise more than just the functionality of their products. They should emphasise how their items contribute to addressing environmental and social issues. This approach involves not only persuading consumers to purchase sustainable fashion but also educating them on how these items can mitigate environmental and social problems. Visual cues, such as sustainability labels, can further underscore the eco-friendliness of the apparel, but caution is necessary to avoid giving the impression of greenwashing.
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FIGURE 9: Environmental knowledge and attitude. |
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Finally, the study revealed that situational context had no significant effect on intention, indicating that it is not a reliable predictor of intention. This finding aligns with Carrington et al. (2010), pointing to a lack of extensive exploration into the impact of situational context on intention towards sustainable fashion. The intricate nature of situational context, which includes both environmental and object stimuli like limited merchandise options, availability, financial limitations and product attributes during decision-making, adds to the ambiguity regarding its impact on decision intentions (Baecke & Van Den Poel 2010).
Theoretical and practical implications
The study highlights a growing interest among South African millennial consumers in sustainable clothing consumption, but notes a scarcity of sustainable fashion options in the market because of the country’s early sustainability efforts (Fashion Outreach 2017; Taljaard & Sonnenberg 2019). This presents opportunities for both researchers and businesses to delve into this emerging trend. For businesses, understanding the TPB can guide their promotion of sustainable fashion, as well as the extension of the theory through constructs such as EC and EK.
Businesses should prioritise strategies to improve consumers’ perceptions of sustainable fashion, including leveraging celebrity endorsements and presenting sustainable fashion as a trendy choice, when a consumption decision has to be made, or otherwise to abstain from overconsumption (Varah et al. 2020). Ensuring the availability of sustainable apparel and effectively communicating product details and availability are also essential for businesses to capitalise on the increasing interest in sustainable fashion.
Businesses in the sustainable fashion sector should emphasise not only the functionality of their products but also their efforts to address environmental and social concerns. Tailoring advertising campaigns to educate consumers about these connections can both influence their purchasing decisions and raise awareness. Clear communication of sustainable efforts through eco-labelling can aid consumers in comparing different retailers, but caution should be exercised to avoid greenwashing (Vehmas et al. 2018).
Limitations and suggestions for future study
While providing valuable insights into South African millennial consumer behaviour on sustainable fashion consumption, the current project does have limitations. Firstly, the project was quantitative in nature with a cross-sectional design. This limits the depth of understanding of the research as could be found in a qualitative and/or longitudinal project. Future research could benefit from adopting a qualitative or mixed-method approach for richer data, while long-term impacts or changes over time can be captured via a longitudinal study (Rizkalla et al. 2022).
The study focused on South African millennial consumers because of their homogeneity and influence on other generations (Tang & Lam 2017), as well as the fact that this generation is prone to pro-environmental behaviour, potentially limiting generalisation to broader populations or consumer categories. Although other cohorts, or because other cohorts do not share such pro-environmental beliefs, it is recommended that either a random sample of South African adult consumers be undertaken, or various other generational cohorts be investigated. Although in some instances, the absence of the researcher may seem to be an advantage, it may be a limitation when the respondents do not understand the questions (Lambert 2019). However, in the pre-testing of the questionnaire, none of the identified respondents stated that any question was ambiguous or that they did not comprehend what was being asked. Results must, however, be interpreted with caution (Kawassaki 2021). Future studies may also consider the actual purchase behaviour of sustainably-produced fashion, as the scope of this study is only limited to the intention of such a behaviour and not the actual behaviour itself, although a question was asked about the respondents’ actual consumption choice as well.
To impact millennial consumers’ intentions towards sustainable fashion, concerted efforts from the government, regulatory bodies and marketers are essential. Commitment and support for sustainable production initiatives within the country can promote environmental protection and provide assistance to workers in the fashion industry.
Acknowledgements
This article is based on research originally conducted as part of Tendai Simango’s master’s thesis titled ‘An examination of the intended-behaviour gap towards ethical fashion in South African millennials’, submitted to the University of South Africa in 2024. The thesis was supervised by Lorna Truter. The thesis was reworked, revised and adapted into a journal article for publication. The original thesis is available at: https://ir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/31558.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
CRediT authorship contribution
Tendai Simango: Conceptualisation, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Writing – original draft. Lorna Truter: Conceptualisation, Methodology, Supervision, Visualisation, Writing – review & editing. Princess Masondo: Formal analysis, Methodology, Software, Writing – review & editing. All authors reviewed the article, contributed to the discussion of results, approved the final version for submission and publication, and take responsibility for the integrity of its findings.
Funding information
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
Data availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available because of the privacy and confidentiality of the research respondents.
Disclaimer
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. They do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or that of the publisher.
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Appendix 1
Questionnaire
The following questions were asked on a five-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree:
Perceived consumer effectiveness:
- I believe that my behaviour in support of the environment can have a positive effect on society.
- I feel my contribution to purchasing ethical apparel does not solve any environmental problems.
- I believe I can protect the environment by purchasing ethical apparel.
Intentions:
- I plan to buy ethical apparel in future/in my next apparel purchase.
- I am willing to consider switching to another clothing brand for sustainable and social reasons.
- I am willing to pay more for clothing which is ethically produced and helps protect the environment.
- I will consider buying ethical apparel because it is less polluting.
Subjective norms:
- I believe close friends and family would think it is a good idea for me to buy ethical apparel.
- I feel that important people in my life want me to buy ethical apparel.
- The people I listen to could influence me or expect me to buy ethical apparel.
- Perceived behaviour control:
- I have the resources, knowledge and capacity to buy ethical apparel.
- Buying ethical apparel is easy for me.
- I have complete control over buying ethical apparel.
Environmental concern:
- I have complete control over buying ethical apparel.
- I believe human beings are not abusing the environment.
- I believe that when mankind interferes with the natural state of the environment, it will most likely produce disastrous consequences.
- I believe that the balance of the natural environment is very delicate and can be easily upset.
- I believe that mankind does not need to live in harmony with the natural environment in order to survive.
- I believe buying/using ethical apparel is a substantial way to reduce the wasteful use of natural resources.
- I believe using ethical apparel is not a great way to conserve natural resources.
Situational context:
- When shopping for clothes, I don’t find ethical apparel in the store; they are usually out of stock.
- Whenever I go shopping for clothes, ethical fashion is never on sale.
- The presence of a salesperson helps me with decision-making to purchase ethical apparel.
- I am not excited about buying items from a collection launched by fast fashion.
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