Language has been fundamental to human communication and the transmission of information from one individual or community to another. It has played a crucial role in the development of societies, cultures and civilisations throughout history. From oral traditions to written texts, and now digital communication, the evolution of language has continuously shaped human interaction and knowledge dissemination (Crystal & Robins 2024; Rabiah 2012). The use of language permeates every aspect of society, including the marketplace.

Communication has been the cornerstone of a successful marketplace (Selvarajan 2023; Tanwa 2024). It provides the link between service providers and the end users. Communication facilitates the exchange of information, ideas and values between businesses and consumers. Clear and efficient communication channels are vital for building strong relationships, fostering collaboration and driving productivity (Selvarajan 2023). This enables transactions and fostering relationships. Effective communication is essential for understanding consumer needs, promoting products and services, building brand identity and ensuring customer satisfaction. A lack of effective communication can lead to misunderstandings, delays and errors in the marketplace. In a rapidly evolving global market, the ability to communicate effectively is more critical than ever.

Basically, the African market is rapidly evolving in the digital age, and language plays a crucial role in product branding within this emerging market. It is the primary medium through which brands convey their identity, values and promises to consumers (Akothphanice 2023). The effective use of language in branding can differentiate a product in a crowded marketplace, build emotional connections with consumers and create lasting brand loyalty (Pogacar, Lowrey & Shrum 2017). From the brand name to advertising slogans, language shapes consumer perceptions and influences purchasing decisions. Hence, in building brand identity and differentiating products, language has played significant roles.

In the context of Africa’s rapidly evolving markets, brands face the challenge of establishing distinctive identities that resonate with diverse audiences (Cayla & Arnould 2008). A key element in this process is the strategic use of language, which not only serves as a means of communication but also as a tool to evoke cultural, emotional and personal connections. Despite the centrality of language in marketing and advertising, particularly in multicultural and multilingual environments such as Africa, limited research has been conducted on how creative intermediaries utilise language to build brand identity.

Aside exploring the role of language in constructing brand identity in African markets, it also focuses on the linguistic strategies employed by creative intermediaries to engage consumers. Creative intermediaries are specialised professionals and organisations, such as advertising agencies, marketers, content creators and graphic designers. They mediate between brands and consumers by designing and transmitting culturally resonant messages. In African markets, they are particularly crucial because they translate branding strategies into linguistically adaptive and culturally authentic forms that resonate with diverse audiences. As Yuniarti, Aziz and Gani (2024) argue, intermediaries merge creativity with market insights to craft campaigns that enhance visibility, engagement and loyalty.

Their role spans multiple functions. They act as enablers, providing creative infrastructure and content development; as tastemakers, shaping what linguistic and stylistic registers are deemed culturally desirable; and as bridgers, connecting global branding strategies with local communicative norms (Balogun & Aruoture 2024; Salawu & Oyesomi 2024). In multilingual African markets, intermediaries strategically deploy code-switching, idioms, humour and indigenous expressions to appeal to different consumer segments, thereby fostering both persuasion and cultural authenticity (Okonkwo et al. 2023).

Hence, the study examines how African cultural elements, dialects and local languages like Pidgin English are used in advertisements to evoke emotional responses and enhance brand authenticity. For a better understanding of the impact of language on brand identity, Stanley Fish’s (1980) affective stylistic approach and reader-response theory, adapted as decoder-response theory for the purpose of this study, will be adopted to analyse how language influences brand, considering the multilingual nature of the African continent and its socio-cultural dynamics.

According to Alisoy (2023), affective stylistics examines how the stylistic features of language such as choice of words, rhythm and cultural references are crafted to elicit emotional resonance from audiences (decoders). He also stresses the key objective of stylistics, which is to analyse the expressive tools of a language. These include elements like metaphors, similes, alliteration and parallelism, which enrich communication by adding depth and subtlety. Far from being merely ornamental, these devices convey meaning, stir emotions and paint vivid images, ultimately improving the impact and clarity of our messages (Alisoy 2023:14). Decoder-response theory focuses on how consumers decode and derive meaning from marketing language. This framework assesses how language not only reflects but also actively shapes consumer perceptions and loyalty. The study highlights the critical role of affective stylistics, a linguistic approach designed to create emotional resonance with audiences and its potential to build strong brand identities in African markets.

The data collected from online skits revealed that creative intermediaries often employ linguistic techniques to engage their audiences. For example, some of the skits featured extensive use of Pidgin English, a popular lingua franca across several African regions, which made the content more relatable to a broad audience. In addition, idioms and proverbs were frequently used to emphasise cultural values and traditional wisdom. This, however, projects brands’ visibility and make them more authentic and reliable.

Some of the advertisements also incorporated humour by using local jokes such as ‘ÿou’re doing well’ Debo Adebayo, nonsensical lexemes, that is, kirirkaka, kirirkaka … This approach was particularly effective in engaging younger audiences who are familiar with online humour trends and appreciate localised content. The integration of these elements created a sense of shared experience between the brand and the audience, thereby enhancing loyalty and emotional attachment.

In the packaging of social media content, brands often used simple phrases in both local dialects and English. This, however, enhances their appeal across linguistic groups. Previous studies indicated that brands which embraced multilingualism in their marketing strategies were able to appeal to a more diverse consumer base (Okonkwo et al. 2023; Samiuddin-Sahem 2023). Companies like MTN and Safaricom have successfully localised their services by using local languages in their advertisement and customer interactions. Also, Coca-Cola, Safaricom and Nigerian Breweries have utilised local languages (such as Pidgin, Yoruba and Swahili) and cultural references (the use of beads, native attires and drums) in their marketing campaigns (cf. Table 1). This has, however, over time, increased brand loyalty and market penetration. Creative intermediaries helped these companies develop relatable and effective communication strategies.

The strategic use of celebrities as a para-linguistic aspect in advertising is one of the powerful tools for brands in building brand identity and fostering consumer connections (Gupta 2007). In the African market, popular brands like MTN, Coca-Cola, Nigerian Breweries, Safaricom and Ethiopia Airline have successfully leveraged celebrity endorsements to enhance their brand image and resonate with their target audiences (Jun 2024; Rastogi, Thakuriya & Munjal 2024). For instance, MTN often taps into entertainment personalities and content creators to connect with their diverse customer base across Africa. Collaborations with international celebrities like David Adeleke [Davido] and Tiwa Savage elevate the brand’s global appeal and attract a younger demographic. These high-profile personalities amplify brand visibility through their large fan bases.

The economic impact of featuring celebrities in advertisements is very significant. It leads to increased sales and a higher return on investment (Kambey, Massie & Saerang 2024). Researchers indicate that celebrity endorsements generate immediate spikes in consumer interest and purchasing behaviour, especially during product launches or promotional events (Chung, Derdenger & Srinivasan 2013; Mäkelä 2024). Furthermore, celebrities engage audiences on social media, acting as influencers who drive conversation and further enhance brand reach.

According to Ouyang (2020), non-verbal paralanguage contributes remarkably to the meaning-making and reception process in oral interpretation. From the video clips of the five selected data, the para-linguistic features are aspect of multimodal communication for creating and enhancing impactful brand communications to audience engagement. For instance, the use of gesticulation and body language in the MTN’s I Don Port, the actor Afeez Oyetoro uses exaggerated gesticulations and expressive body movements to add humour and capture the audience’s attention. Non-verbal cues play a vital role in complementing the verbal message, reinforcing the theme of switching networks with enthusiasm and ease. Equally significant is the strategic use of colours and visual identity. According to Chaudhary and Shrivastav (2023), graphic designers employ colours and visual elements to effectively communicate a brand’s message, evoke emotions and leave a lasting impression. MTN’s distinctive yellow identity, for instance, carries psychological significance, symbolising (see Figure 1) energy and optimism. This creates a visual connection with the audience even before the verbal message is fully processed. In addition, MTN leverages humour and playfulness through the use of nonsensical lexemes like ‘Kirikata kirikata’, which breaks formal communication norms, engages the audience and makes the advertisement both memorable and enjoyable. This approach underscores the collaborative efforts of advertising agencies, graphic designers, marketers and content creators in crafting impactful advertisements.

Looking at datum five, the images of local topography, traditional art and crafts visually communicate the brand’s Ethiopian roots. This further emphasises cultural pride and authenticity. The facial expressions and emotional resonance are another notable paralinguistic feature. The facial expressions of beautiful flight crew members and actors in local costumes convey warmth, trust and relatability, making the audience feel connected and welcomed (see Figure 9).

Symbolism and semiotics in datum 4, Nigerian Breweries (Goldberg Lager Beer), are instances of paralinguistic features. The traditional attire, drums and marriage settings evoke a sense of cultural belonging and nostalgia. This, however, signals respect for heritage and social identity. Tone, intonation and musicality in the Coca-Cola’s Mama Di Mama are also paralinguistic features identified. The repetitive rhythm and affectionate tone of the song enhance emotional appeal. This aligns with themes of care and family, which resonate deeply with African cultural values.

In Safaricom’s advertisement, there is the visual and contextual symbolism. The depiction of children and an elderly woman lifting each other is symbolic of community, cooperation and intergenerational support, central to African cultural ideals. Also are the cultural representations such as cues, colours and cultural symbols. These are indispensable in marketing to African audiences. All these strategies build emotional connections, make advertisements more relatable and subsequently enhance brand loyalty.

According to Yuniarti, Aziz and Gani (2024), creative and marketing professionals are individuals or teams specialised in developing and executing innovative strategies, designs and content to promote brands, products or services. They blend creativity with market insights to create compelling campaigns, visuals and messages, aiming to engage target audiences, enhance brand visibility and drive business growth across various media platforms. These advertising agencies, marketers, graphic designers and content creators collaborate to build strong brand identities for companies like MTN, Safaricom, Coca-Cola, Nigerian Breweries and Ethiopia Airline (Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 4, Figure 6, and Figure 8). They craft strategic campaigns, design visuals, develop engaging content and implement marketing strategies to attract, retain and engage customers while enhancing brand visibility, loyalty and profitability across various platforms.

Lastly, creative economics incorporates promotional activities. Promotional activities are strategic efforts by businesses and organisations to communicate, encourage desired actions and build awareness with their target audiences for purchases or participation. These activities encompass a variety of tools and techniques, including advertising, sales promotions, personal selling, public relations and digital marketing. The goal of promotional activities is to create a favourable impression of a brand, product or service to influence consumer behaviour. Promotional activities are tailored to suit the target audience’s preferences and cultural values. In diverse and multilingual markets, they often involve a mix of language adaptation, cultural references and emotional appeals to resonate with consumers. These activities range from large-scale advertising campaigns on traditional media platforms to localised social media promotions, influencer collaborations and grassroots marketing events. When done effectively, they not only boost visibility and sales but also foster brand loyalty and long-term consumer relationships.

The promotional activities in the analysed data illustrated an understanding of the African market’s cultural and linguistic diversity. Brands such as MTN, Safaricom, Coca-Cola, Nigerian Breweries and Ethiopian Airlines strategically employ language and cultural elements to connect with their audiences. These activities heavily rely on linguistic strategies, such as the use of Pidgin English, Swahili and local dialects, as seen in advertisements like MTN’s I Don Port campaign and Safaricom’s Tuinuane (Let’s lift each other) (see Figure 3). By incorporating local languages, idiomatic expressions and humour, these brands enhance relatability by breaking formal communication barriers to appeal to diverse consumer bases.

Emotional engagement is another standout feature of these promotional activities. Brands employ affective stylistics, such as humour, familial references and culturally rich narratives, to foster emotional connections with audiences. Coca-Cola’s Mama di Mama advertisement exemplifies this by celebrating maternal love and care, using music, metaphors and repetition to evoke warmth and nostalgia. Similarly, Nigerian Breweries showcases Yoruba cultural pride through traditional attires, drums and marriage settings, reinforcing its alignment with local heritage while promoting its Goldberg Lager Beer.

The use of celebrities and symbolic imagery enhances the effectiveness of these promotional activities. By engaging popular figures like Afeez Oyetoro (Saka) for MTN and 2Face Idibia for Coca-Cola (see Figure 5), the brands amplify their reach and relatability. Safaricom and Ethiopian Airlines employ community-based and culturally symbolic visuals, such as children helping elders and depictions of Ethiopia’s landscape, to emphasise values of unity, pride and support. These elements not only increase the advertisements’ memorability but also strengthen their emotional resonance with the audience.

The promotional activities in the analysis highlighted the importance of culturally attuned and linguistically adaptive strategies in advertising. By leveraging local languages, cultural symbols, humour and emotional storytelling, the brands effectively navigate Africa’s complex, multilingual environment (Okonkwo et al. (2023). These approaches build stronger brand identities, foster loyalty and deepen connections with consumers, demonstrating the value of tailoring promotional activities to the cultural and emotional realities of diverse markets. The study findings show the role of creative intermediaries in bridging language gaps with local consumers in popular brands in Africa. It demonstrates Aronczyk’s (2013) assertion that intermediaries play a significant role in helping brands navigate the complexity of multilingualism in African settings. These roles involve mediation, communication, consultancy and content development.

The analysis of the five selected brands revealed that brand intermediaries code-switch and code-mix at irregular intervals. This practice is often employed for clarification and emphasis to grab attention and create a lasting impression on the end user (Jabeen & Ahmad 2023). This stylistic device is also used to create social bonds with the brands. Advertisers use these linguistic phenomena to enhance creativity, cultural relevance, emotional resonance and persuasiveness, among other factors. To enhance the localisation of the brand, they engage indigenous celebrities and use promotional activities such as slogans, local content, music and paralinguistic devices to demonstrate the significance of the brand they are promoting.

The intermediaries are faced with both opportunities and challenges. Opportunities come in the form of the ability to penetrate the market using local content. This enables them to create unique and appealing brands that stand out among their competitors. However, they also face challenges such as navigating the encumbrance of dialects and variance because of the numerous dialects and languages in African society. In addition, they confront difficulties in balancing global and local branding.

The findings underscore the importance of culturally attuned language use in marketing and branding efforts. They offer insights into how brands can better engage with African consumers through tailored linguistic strategies. By understanding and addressing the linguistic and cultural diversity within the African market, brands can develop more effective communication strategies that resonate with local consumers, thereby enhancing their market presence and brand loyalty.

Language plays a pivotal role in constructing brand identity in African markets, particularly in multilingual and culturally diverse settings. Creative intermediaries such as advertising agencies and content creators employ a combination of linguistic strategies such as code-switching, use of local dialects and cultural idioms to resonate with target audiences. These strategies foster emotional connections, enhance brand authenticity and establish stronger consumer relationships. Moreover, the incorporation of affective stylistics, humour and culturally relevant narratives significantly amplifies the effectiveness of advertisements, making them memorable and impactful.

This study also highlights challenges associated with navigating Africa’s linguistic diversity. Brands face difficulties in balancing local cultural relevance with global brand identity and ensuring consistency across multiple dialects. Despite these challenges, the findings underscore the importance of culturally attuned language use in marketing, emphasising that brands that adapt their communication strategies to the linguistic and cultural nuances of African markets are more likely to succeed in building loyalty and expanding their market presence.